“LANGUAGE AND LOGIC”
“Language”
The method of human communication either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
Or
A system of communication used by a particular country or community.
“Logic”
“Logic is the study of methods and principals used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.”
It study the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation.
1.1: “Language and Logic”
When people reason they typically do using language, manipulating propositions in a logical or informative spirit. But language is used in a great variety of ways, only some of which are informative. Without the intention to inform we may express ourselves by using language.
Logicians are chiefly concerned with language used informatively affirming or denying propositions, formulating and evaluating arguments and so on. In reasoning it is this informative function of language that is the principal concern.
You have probably said that someone was “being illogical” because they were too emotional or did not agree with you. You might have thought of logic as a way of proving things or reasoning better.
I, d like to distinguish between logic as a way of talking about thinking, including “arguments” “fallacies” and truth. And logic as a way of talking about language and what goes into language, into formulating thoughts.
1.2: “Functions of Language”
There are three main functions in language.
Informative
Expressive
Directive
“Informative Language Function” .essentially, the communication of information.
The informative function of language affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact.
This function is used to describe the world or reason about it.
These sentences have a truth value, that is, the sentence are either true or false (recognizing ofcourse, that we might not know what that truth value is.
Hence they are important of logic.
Example:
Moving through south from the center of Detroit, the first foreign country one encounters is not Cuba nor it is Honduras or any other Latin American nation; it is Canada.
“Expressive Language Function”
Reports feelings or attitudes of the writer or the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader.
Poetry and literature are among the best examples , but much of , perhaps most of , ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
Two main aspect of this function are generally noted 1. Evoking certain feelings
2. Expressing feelings.
Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true or false. The logic of fictional statements is an interesting area of inquiry.
Example:
Shakespare,s king lears lament.
“Ripeness is all” or “Dickness” of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness.
It was the best of time, it was the worst of time.
“Directive Language Function”
Language used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) over action.
The directive function is most commonly used in commands and requests.
Directive language is not normally consider true or false.
Example:
“Close the window.”
Or
“You are smoking in a non-smoking area.”
Although it is declarative , can be used to mean.
“Do not smoke in this area.”
1.3: “Emotive Language , Neutral Language”
“Emotive Language”
Aims to manipulate or create feelings. It is used to inspire someone. Emotive language appeals to the readers emotions.
It can help convince them.
It is typically common in media and poetry.
Example:
These dogs are starving , homeless and need your help.
The word “starving” and “homeless” are emotive because it makes you feel an emotion (sadness – which is the most common im emotive language).
“Neutral Language”
Neutral language has a totally regular grammar that does not favour anyone.
Example:
Each participant must present their ID badge at the door.
Or
The stage manager must delegate all the tasks
Therefore, he is responsible for the show success.
1.4: “Disputes and Ambiguity”
“Disputes”
The careless use of language can lead to needless misunderstanding and dispute.
Disputes falls into three categories.
1. Obviously genuine dispute:
There is a disagreement in the attitude or belief or in the thinking of a person.
Example:
Religious concepts.
Or
If A roots for Yankees , and B for the red sox , they are in genuine disagreement.
1. Merely Verbal Dispute:
In which the apparent conflict is not genuine and can be resolved by coming to agreement about how word or phrase is to be understood.
Example:
F may hold that a tree falling in the wilderness with no person to hear it creates no sound, while G insists that a sound really is produced by the falling tree.
If a sound is the outcome of a human auditory sensation , then F and G may agree that there was none.
Or
If a sound is simply what is produced by vibrations in the air, then they may agree that a sound was indeed produced. Getting clear about what is meant by sound will resolve the disagreement , which was no more than verbal.
Apparently verbal but really genuine dispute:
A misunderstanding about the use of terms may be involved in such cases , but when that misunderstanding has been cleared up there remains a disagreement that goes beyond the meanings of the words.
Example:
The dispute of India and Pakistan.
“Ambiguity”
Ambiguity is an attribute of any concept, ideas, statement or claim whose meaning , intention interpretation can not be definitely clear.
Or
A word, sentence or phrase is amvigious when it has more than one meaning.
The term used by the disputing parties may have more than one meaning they may be ambigious but such ambiguitymay be recognized by disputing parties.
1. Lexical ambiguity
The presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word.
Example:
Light , Bear
Or
John went to a bank.
“Bank” have two meanings
The edge of a river or a financial institution.
1. Syntactically ambiguity
It is a situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way to ambigious sentence structure.
Example:
“Put the box on the table in the kitchen”
Here are two meanings.
Is the box already on the table, and to be put in the kitchen?
Or
Is the box put on the table which is in the kitchen?
From the sentence alone we cannot tell.
1.5: “Definitions and their uses”
We can save a lot of time sharpen our reasoning abilities, and communicate with each other more effectively if we watch for disagreements about the meaning of words and try to resolve them whenever we can.
The most common way of preventing or eliminating differences in the use of languages is by agreeing on the definition of our terms.
Lexical Definition:
It simply reports the way in which a term is already used within a language community. The goal here is to inform someone else of the accepted meanings of the term so the definition is more or less correct depending upon the accuracy with which it captures that usage.
Example:
Atheist: one who disbelieve in or denies the existence of God.
This is a correct definition in the lexical sense because it does accurately describe how the term atheist is used in a wide variety of contexts.
Stipulative Definition:
It freely assigns meanings to a completely new term creating a usage that had never previously existed. There are no existing standard against which to compare it , and the definition is always correct.
Example:
I suggest using apatheist
To refer to people who disbelieves in God (atheist) but who also doesnot care about whether any God exist or not.
Precising Definition:
It combine both stipulative and lexical definitions. It is used to decrease the ambiguity of a word. It attempts to clear an expression. So that the “words” meaning is not left to the interpretation of the reader or listener.
Example:
From a class syllabus.
“Class participation” means attending a class , listening attentively , answering and asking questions , and participating in class discussion.
Theoretical Definition:
It distinguished by their attempt to establish the use of this term within the context of a broader intellectual framework.
Since the adoption of any theoretical definition commits us to acceptance of the theory of which it is an integral part we are rightly cautious in agreeing to it.
Example:
“Newtons” definition of the terms “mass” and “inertia” at least part of his theories about the conditions in which physical objects move.
Persuasive Definition:
It is an attempt to attach emotive meaning to the use of a term. Since this can only serve to confuse the literal meaning of the term persuasive definitions have no legitimate use.
Example:
Go on , try again. You nearly did it that time.
1.6: The structure of definitions: Extension and Intention
The “extension” of a general term is just the collection of individual things to which it is correctly applied. Thus the extension of the word “chair” includes every chair that is in the world.
The “intension” of a general term on the other hand is the set of features which are shared by everything to which it applies.
Thus the intention of the word “chair” is a piece of furniture designed to be sat upon by one person at a time,
Clearly the two kinds of meaning are closely interrelated .
1.7: Constructing Good Definitions by Genus and Differences.
According to Copi and Cohen there are five rules for constructing a good definition by genus anf differences.
1. Focus on essential features:
A good definition tries to point out the features that are essential to the designation of things as members of the relevant group.
Example:
A Definition of “human being” as “featherless bipeds” is not very illuminating even if does pick out the rights of individuals.
2. Avoid Circularity:
It cannot provide any useful information ; either the audience already understands the meaning of the term, or it can not understand the explanation that includes that term.
Example:
There is not much point in defining “cordless phone” as a “telephone that has no cord.”
1. Capture the correct extension:
A good definition will apply to exactly the same things as the term being defined, no more no less.
Example:
If we say it is a warm blooded animal. It is too broad.
If we say it is a fathered egg laying animal. It is too narrow.
If we say it is a smll flying animal. Then it is both nor too much narrow nor too much broad.
1. Avoid figurative or obsecure language:
The use of language doesnot too much complicated that do not help such a person learn how to apply the term is politeness.
Example:
“Happiness is a warm puppy.”
May be lovely thought.
But it is a lousy definition.
1. Be affirmative rather than negative:
A good definition uses positive designations whenever it is possible to do so.
Example:
Defining someone as “Honest Person” who rarely lies.
“CONTENT”
Language and Logic
Functions of Language
Informative
Expressive
Directive
Emotive Language and Neutral language
Disputes and Ambiguity
“Disputes”
Obviously genuine dispute
Merely verbal dispute
Apparently verbal but really genuine dispute
“Ambiguity”
Lexical ambiguity
Syntactically ambiguity
“Definitions and their uses”
1. Lexical Definition
2. Stipulative Definition
3. Precising Definition
4. Theoratical Definition
5. Persuasive Definition
6. “The structure of definitions”
Extension and Intension
“Constructing good definitions by genus and differences”
1. Focus on essential features
2. Avoid Circularity
3. Capture the correct extension
4. Avoid figurative or obsecure language
5. Be affirmative rather than negative
“Language”
The method of human communication either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
Or
A system of communication used by a particular country or community.
“Logic”
“Logic is the study of methods and principals used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.”
It study the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation.
1.1: “Language and Logic”
When people reason they typically do using language, manipulating propositions in a logical or informative spirit. But language is used in a great variety of ways, only some of which are informative. Without the intention to inform we may express ourselves by using language.
Logicians are chiefly concerned with language used informatively affirming or denying propositions, formulating and evaluating arguments and so on. In reasoning it is this informative function of language that is the principal concern.
You have probably said that someone was “being illogical” because they were too emotional or did not agree with you. You might have thought of logic as a way of proving things or reasoning better.
I, d like to distinguish between logic as a way of talking about thinking, including “arguments” “fallacies” and truth. And logic as a way of talking about language and what goes into language, into formulating thoughts.
1.2: “Functions of Language”
There are three main functions in language.
Informative
Expressive
Directive
“Informative Language Function” .essentially, the communication of information.
The informative function of language affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact.
This function is used to describe the world or reason about it.
These sentences have a truth value, that is, the sentence are either true or false (recognizing ofcourse, that we might not know what that truth value is.
Hence they are important of logic.
Example:
Moving through south from the center of Detroit, the first foreign country one encounters is not Cuba nor it is Honduras or any other Latin American nation; it is Canada.
“Expressive Language Function”
Reports feelings or attitudes of the writer or the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader.
Poetry and literature are among the best examples , but much of , perhaps most of , ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
Two main aspect of this function are generally noted 1. Evoking certain feelings
2. Expressing feelings.
Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true or false. The logic of fictional statements is an interesting area of inquiry.
Example:
Shakespare,s king lears lament.
“Ripeness is all” or “Dickness” of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness.
It was the best of time, it was the worst of time.
“Directive Language Function”
Language used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) over action.
The directive function is most commonly used in commands and requests.
Directive language is not normally consider true or false.
Example:
“Close the window.”
Or
“You are smoking in a non-smoking area.”
Although it is declarative , can be used to mean.
“Do not smoke in this area.”
1.3: “Emotive Language , Neutral Language”
“Emotive Language”
Aims to manipulate or create feelings. It is used to inspire someone. Emotive language appeals to the readers emotions.
It can help convince them.
It is typically common in media and poetry.
Example:
These dogs are starving , homeless and need your help.
The word “starving” and “homeless” are emotive because it makes you feel an emotion (sadness – which is the most common im emotive language).
“Neutral Language”
Neutral language has a totally regular grammar that does not favour anyone.
Example:
Each participant must present their ID badge at the door.
Or
The stage manager must delegate all the tasks
Therefore, he is responsible for the show success.
1.4: “Disputes and Ambiguity”
“Disputes”
The careless use of language can lead to needless misunderstanding and dispute.
Disputes falls into three categories.
1. Obviously genuine dispute:
There is a disagreement in the attitude or belief or in the thinking of a person.
Example:
Religious concepts.
Or
If A roots for Yankees , and B for the red sox , they are in genuine disagreement.
1. Merely Verbal Dispute:
In which the apparent conflict is not genuine and can be resolved by coming to agreement about how word or phrase is to be understood.
Example:
F may hold that a tree falling in the wilderness with no person to hear it creates no sound, while G insists that a sound really is produced by the falling tree.
If a sound is the outcome of a human auditory sensation , then F and G may agree that there was none.
Or
If a sound is simply what is produced by vibrations in the air, then they may agree that a sound was indeed produced. Getting clear about what is meant by sound will resolve the disagreement , which was no more than verbal.
Apparently verbal but really genuine dispute:
A misunderstanding about the use of terms may be involved in such cases , but when that misunderstanding has been cleared up there remains a disagreement that goes beyond the meanings of the words.
Example:
The dispute of India and Pakistan.
“Ambiguity”
Ambiguity is an attribute of any concept, ideas, statement or claim whose meaning , intention interpretation can not be definitely clear.
Or
A word, sentence or phrase is amvigious when it has more than one meaning.
The term used by the disputing parties may have more than one meaning they may be ambigious but such ambiguitymay be recognized by disputing parties.
1. Lexical ambiguity
The presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word.
Example:
Light , Bear
Or
John went to a bank.
“Bank” have two meanings
The edge of a river or a financial institution.
1. Syntactically ambiguity
It is a situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way to ambigious sentence structure.
Example:
“Put the box on the table in the kitchen”
Here are two meanings.
Is the box already on the table, and to be put in the kitchen?
Or
Is the box put on the table which is in the kitchen?
From the sentence alone we cannot tell.
1.5: “Definitions and their uses”
We can save a lot of time sharpen our reasoning abilities, and communicate with each other more effectively if we watch for disagreements about the meaning of words and try to resolve them whenever we can.
The most common way of preventing or eliminating differences in the use of languages is by agreeing on the definition of our terms.
Lexical Definition:
It simply reports the way in which a term is already used within a language community. The goal here is to inform someone else of the accepted meanings of the term so the definition is more or less correct depending upon the accuracy with which it captures that usage.
Example:
Atheist: one who disbelieve in or denies the existence of God.
This is a correct definition in the lexical sense because it does accurately describe how the term atheist is used in a wide variety of contexts.
Stipulative Definition:
It freely assigns meanings to a completely new term creating a usage that had never previously existed. There are no existing standard against which to compare it , and the definition is always correct.
Example:
I suggest using apatheist
To refer to people who disbelieves in God (atheist) but who also doesnot care about whether any God exist or not.
Precising Definition:
It combine both stipulative and lexical definitions. It is used to decrease the ambiguity of a word. It attempts to clear an expression. So that the “words” meaning is not left to the interpretation of the reader or listener.
Example:
From a class syllabus.
“Class participation” means attending a class , listening attentively , answering and asking questions , and participating in class discussion.
Theoretical Definition:
It distinguished by their attempt to establish the use of this term within the context of a broader intellectual framework.
Since the adoption of any theoretical definition commits us to acceptance of the theory of which it is an integral part we are rightly cautious in agreeing to it.
Example:
“Newtons” definition of the terms “mass” and “inertia” at least part of his theories about the conditions in which physical objects move.
Persuasive Definition:
It is an attempt to attach emotive meaning to the use of a term. Since this can only serve to confuse the literal meaning of the term persuasive definitions have no legitimate use.
Example:
Go on , try again. You nearly did it that time.
1.6: The structure of definitions: Extension and Intention
The “extension” of a general term is just the collection of individual things to which it is correctly applied. Thus the extension of the word “chair” includes every chair that is in the world.
The “intension” of a general term on the other hand is the set of features which are shared by everything to which it applies.
Thus the intention of the word “chair” is a piece of furniture designed to be sat upon by one person at a time,
Clearly the two kinds of meaning are closely interrelated .
1.7: Constructing Good Definitions by Genus and Differences.
According to Copi and Cohen there are five rules for constructing a good definition by genus anf differences.
1. Focus on essential features:
A good definition tries to point out the features that are essential to the designation of things as members of the relevant group.
Example:
A Definition of “human being” as “featherless bipeds” is not very illuminating even if does pick out the rights of individuals.
2. Avoid Circularity:
It cannot provide any useful information ; either the audience already understands the meaning of the term, or it can not understand the explanation that includes that term.
Example:
There is not much point in defining “cordless phone” as a “telephone that has no cord.”
1. Capture the correct extension:
A good definition will apply to exactly the same things as the term being defined, no more no less.
Example:
If we say it is a warm blooded animal. It is too broad.
If we say it is a fathered egg laying animal. It is too narrow.
If we say it is a smll flying animal. Then it is both nor too much narrow nor too much broad.
1. Avoid figurative or obsecure language:
The use of language doesnot too much complicated that do not help such a person learn how to apply the term is politeness.
Example:
“Happiness is a warm puppy.”
May be lovely thought.
But it is a lousy definition.
1. Be affirmative rather than negative:
A good definition uses positive designations whenever it is possible to do so.
Example:
Defining someone as “Honest Person” who rarely lies.
“CONTENT”
Language and Logic
Functions of Language
Informative
Expressive
Directive
Emotive Language and Neutral language
Disputes and Ambiguity
“Disputes”
Obviously genuine dispute
Merely verbal dispute
Apparently verbal but really genuine dispute
“Ambiguity”
Lexical ambiguity
Syntactically ambiguity
“Definitions and their uses”
1. Lexical Definition
2. Stipulative Definition
3. Precising Definition
4. Theoratical Definition
5. Persuasive Definition
6. “The structure of definitions”
Extension and Intension
“Constructing good definitions by genus and differences”
1. Focus on essential features
2. Avoid Circularity
3. Capture the correct extension
4. Avoid figurative or obsecure language
5. Be affirmative rather than negative
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